Tracking US-Israeli strikes on Iran's schools, hospitals and cultural sites
Iranian authorities and monitoring groups say more than 2,000 people have been killed since the conflict began on 28 February, including at least 1,168 civilians, among them 194 children
Recent US and Israeli strikes across Iran have hit a broad range of civilian sites, including schools, hospitals, universities and cultural landmarks, prompting concerns among legal experts and international organisations over potential violations of international humanitarian law.
Iranian authorities and monitoring groups say more than 2,000 people have been killed since the conflict began on 28 February, including at least 1,168 civilians, among them 194 children, according to the Human Rights Activists News Agency (HRANA), says Al Jazeera.
Civilian infrastructure among targets
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Among the sites hit was a school in the southern city of Minab, where a strike killed 168 people, according to local reports. Another school in Urmia in northwestern Iran also sustained damage.
Universities have also been affected. At least 30 institutions have reported damage, including Shahid Beheshti University in Tehran, where the Laser and Plasma Research Institute was destroyed, and a research facility at the Science and Technology University that was reduced to rubble.
Healthcare facilities have been repeatedly struck. Gandhi Hospital in Tehran suffered extensive damage, including the destruction of its IVF department. The Pasteur Institute, a long-established centre producing vaccines and biological products, was "sustained significant damage and was rendered unable to continue delivering health services," according to the World Health Organization.
More than 20 healthcare facilities have been hit since early March, the WHO said.
Other civilian locations affected include the Golestan Palace, a UNESCO World Heritage site, the Grand Bazaar in Tehran, and multiple sports complexes, including the Azadi sports complex, which suffered near collapse, reports the BBC.
Industrial and economic infrastructure has also been targeted. Strikes damaged oil refineries in the Mahshahr economic zone and steel plants that Israeli officials say account for 70% of Iran's production capacity. A suspension bridge near Tehran was also hit, killing at least eight people.
Civilian impact and displacement
The strikes have triggered displacement and widespread disruption. An estimated 100,000 people fled Tehran within 48 hours of initial attacks.
Residents described the impact in stark terms. One said the situation felt like "Hell on earth", while another called it "A scene from a dystopian film". Others spoke of psychological strain, with one resident saying, "The sound of ongoing blasts is fatiguing".
Internet restrictions imposed by Iranian authorities have limited the flow of information from affected areas.
US and Israeli justification
The United States and Israel say they are targeting military assets or infrastructure used for military purposes.
US Defence Secretary Pete Hegseth said American forces "Never target civilian targets" following reports of the strike on the Minab school.
Israel has said some sites had dual-use functions. It described a strike on a pharmaceutical facility near Tehran as targeting a site linked to chemical weapons production. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said strikes had "Destroyed 70 percent of Iran's steel production capacity".
The Israeli military said damage to Gandhi Hospital was incidental to a strike on a nearby military facility. The United States said the B1 bridge near Tehran was being used to move military equipment.
Legal concerns and counterarguments
International humanitarian law prohibits deliberate attacks on civilians and civilian objects, while allowing strikes on military objectives, including dual-use facilities, under strict conditions of necessity and proportionality.
Critics say the scale and nature of the damage raise questions about whether those standards have been met.
World Health Organization Director-General Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus said attacks on medical sites were "Extremely worrying... health facilities are protected under international humanitarian law".
UNESCO said "Cultural property is protected under international law" after damage was reported at heritage sites in Tehran.
A group of 100 US legal experts cited "Serious concerns about violations of international human rights law and international humanitarian law".
Dr Michael Becker, a law professor at Trinity College Dublin, said there are "Very weak constraints on military decision-making", noting that claims of incidental damage can be difficult to verify and may be used to justify strikes on protected sites.
Iranian officials have strongly condemned the attacks. A foreign ministry spokesperson called the strike on Gandhi Hospital a "Blatant war crime", while Science Minister Hossein Simaei Saraf said, "Attacking universities and research centres means returning to the Stone Age".
At the same time, some legal interpretations note that if civilian infrastructure is used for military purposes, it may lose its protected status under international law. However, experts say such claims require clear evidence and must still meet proportionality standards, particularly where civilian harm is foreseeable.
Broader implications
The strikes have affected Iran's scientific, medical and industrial capacity, with damage to research institutions, healthcare systems and key industries.
Residents described empty streets and ongoing fear. One called Tehran a "Ghost town", while another said, "The fear of war is better than the fear we have of the Islamic Republic".
The conflict has also raised concerns about longer-term impacts on civilian life, including access to healthcare, education and basic services, particularly as threats to energy and water infrastructure persist.
