Why is Africa, a continent rich in resources, still so poor?
Consider Monaco, where 1.5 litres of drinking water can reportedly cost as much as $6. Meanwhile, Burkina Faso, one of the world's poorest countries, has an annual per capita income of approximately $180.
The story could perhaps begin with a photograph taken in Sudan in 1993. Titled The Vulture and the Little Girl, the Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph captured a frail, starving child lying on the ground as a vulture waited nearby.
The haunting image brought global attention to the devastating effects of famine in Africa.
The contrast is difficult to ignore. While countries in the Middle East waste an average of more than 120 kilograms of food per person annually, people in parts of Africa struggle to survive, with some facing starvation.
In today's world, economic opportunities and living standards vary dramatically across borders; geography can determine the course of a person's life. While some people can afford to buy entire islands, millions of others struggle to secure their most basic necessities.
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Consider Monaco, where 1.5 litres of drinking water can reportedly cost as much as $6. Meanwhile, Burkina Faso, one of the world's poorest countries, has an annual per capita income of approximately $180. That translates to a monthly income of just $15.
At this rate, buying a litre of water at the reported Monaco price would cost a person in Burkina Faso almost half of their month's income.
The contrast raises a fundamental question: Why does Africa, a continent endowed with enormous natural resources, remain home to some of the world's poorest populations? Is its poverty primarily the result of geographical and environmental challenges, or does it have deeper roots in colonial history and international politics?
At first glance, it may seem that Africa has always been poor. That perception has been reinforced by decades of international media coverage, which often portrays the continent through the lens of famine, conflict, and economic hardship. However, the reality is considerably more complex.
According to United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) estimates, Africa holds approximately 30% of the world's mineral reserves, 12% of its oil reserves and 8% of its natural gas reserves.
The continent's mineral wealth is also reflected in its extraction industry.
According to a report by Al Jazeera, Africa produced approximately one billion tonnes of minerals in 2019, with an estimated market value of $406 billion.
This raises another question. Why do so many people in a continent so rich in natural resources continue to live in poverty?
To understand the answer, it is necessary to revisit Africa's history.
Africa's colonial past
Understanding Africa's present economic challenges requires an examination of its colonial past. History is often treated as a distant chapter, disconnected from contemporary realities.
Yet the economic and political structures established centuries ago continue to influence the continent's development.
According to The Guardian, the Portuguese were among the first European powers to establish plantations in Africa, using enslaved Africans to work on sugar plantations on the island of São Tomé in the 15th century.
The transatlantic slave trade expanded significantly over the following centuries, reaching its peak in the 18th century. Millions of Africans were forcibly taken from their homes and transported across the Atlantic to be sold into slavery in the Americas.
An estimated 11 million Africans survived the transatlantic journey. In addition, millions more were trafficked through the Sahara Desert, the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean over several centuries.
The slave trade had devastating consequences for African societies. It deprived communities of their populations, disrupted local economies, and weakened social and political institutions.
In a study examining the relationship between the slave trade and Africa's subsequent economic development, Nathan Nunn, an economics professor at Stanford University, found a significant association between the number of people enslaved from different African regions and their present-day economic performance.
His research suggested that African countries from which larger numbers of people had been taken during the slave trade tend to have lower levels of economic development today.
In other words, regions that suffered more extensive human losses during the slave trade have, in many cases, experienced greater economic difficulties over the long term. However, the consequences of colonialism extended far beyond the loss of human lives and economic resources.
Colonial administrations also sought to reshape African societies culturally and politically. In many colonies, European education systems promoted European languages, customs and values, often at the expense of indigenous cultures and traditions.
Colonised Africans were frequently taught to regard their own cultural identities as inferior. Religious conversion and the introduction of European educational systems further transformed traditional social structures.
In his 1961 book The Wretched of the Earth, Frantz Fanon, the renowned psychiatrist and anti-colonial thinker, argued that colonialism did more than seize control of a nation. It also distorted the colonised people's understanding of their own history and identity.
The legacy of colonialism, therefore, cannot be measured solely in terms of the resources extracted or the territories occupied.
Its influence also extended to the institutions, identities and social structures that shaped post-independence African states.
Wealth beneath the soil, poverty above it
Africa's present economic landscape is far more diverse than the popular image of a continent defined by poverty and conflict.
While several African countries continue to struggle with poverty, others have achieved considerable economic progress.
Seychelles, for instance, is among Africa's wealthier countries, with a per capita income of approximately $22,000. Its economic performance demonstrates that the continent's development trajectories differ considerably from one country to another.
Natural resources remain central to many African economies. According to an Al Jazeera report based on 2019 data, petroleum and coal were the principal mineral resources in 22 African countries.
Nigeria accounted for approximately 25% of Africa's oil production, followed by Angola and Algeria, which contributed 17% and 16%, respectively, according to the report.
Meanwhile, gold, iron, titanium, zinc and copper are among the major minerals produced in 11 African countries. Ghana is one of the continent's leading gold producers, followed by South Africa and Mali.
Diamonds, gypsum, sulphur and phosphate are also important natural resources in several African economies.
The Democratic Republic of the Congo is a major producer of industrial diamonds, alongside Botswana and South Africa. Botswana, meanwhile, is one of Africa's leading producers of gem-quality diamonds.
Despite this extraordinary mineral wealth, the benefits of resource extraction have not been distributed evenly across the continent.
Many resource-rich countries continue to face poverty, unemployment, weak infrastructure, and limited access to essential services. In some cases, dependence on mineral exports has also left national economies vulnerable to fluctuations in international commodity prices.
The problem is not simply that Africa lacks resources. Rather, the question is how those resources are extracted, managed, and distributed, and how much of their value remains within the countries where they are found.
Conflict and the struggle for resources
Africa's economic challenges are also closely linked to political instability and armed conflict.
Several countries across the continent have experienced prolonged conflicts involving governments, armed groups and competing political interests. In resource-rich regions, competition over land, minerals and other natural resources has sometimes contributed to violence.
A World Population Review report has highlighted the scale of armed conflicts across Africa. However, the number of ongoing conflicts varies depending on how they are defined and counted.
The continent's colonial history is also relevant to understanding its contemporary political challenges.
Large parts of Africa were once under European colonial rule. France controlled territories across West and North Africa, including Algeria, Senegal, Mali, Côte d'Ivoire and Madagascar.
Britain also governed a vast number of African territories, including Egypt, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, South Africa, Ghana, Nigeria, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Colonial administrations frequently reorganised African economies around the extraction and export of raw materials. Infrastructure, including railways and ports, was often developed primarily to facilitate the movement of resources to international markets rather than to support balanced domestic economic development.
Although African countries gradually gained independence, many inherited economic systems heavily dependent on exporting primary commodities.
The effects of colonial rule did not disappear with independence. In several countries, political instability, economic dependence, and institutional weaknesses continued to shape development.
The legacy of colonialism remains a subject of debate in Europe. In Britain, for example, discussions about the country's imperial past have often been politically contentious.
In 2002, then-Conservative politician Boris Johnson argued that Britain had little reason to feel ashamed of its colonial history in Africa. His remarks reflected a broader debate about how Britain's imperial past should be understood and taught.
A 2016 opinion poll cited by The Guardian found that 44% of British respondents agreed with the view that the British Empire was something to be proud of.
Critics of Britain's colonial legacy have argued that limited public understanding of colonial violence and exploitation has contributed to the persistence of favourable perceptions of the empire.
The debate also extends to education. Critics have pointed out that the history of British colonialism and its consequences have not always received adequate attention in school curricula.
The way colonial history is remembered and taught continues to influence public discussions about Britain's relationship with Africa.
Changing geopolitics of Africa
Africa's strategic importance has grown as global powers compete for access to its natural resources, markets and diplomatic influence.
While relations between some African countries and Western governments have become increasingly complicated, China has expanded its economic and diplomatic engagement with the continent.
At a summit in Beijing in September 2024, Chinese President Xi Jinping announced that China would provide Africa with $51 billion in financial support over the next three years, including credit and investment.
The announcement reflected Beijing's continued interest in strengthening economic and diplomatic ties with African countries.
China has become an important trading partner and infrastructure financier for several African economies. Chinese-funded projects have supported the construction of roads, railways, ports and energy infrastructure across the continent.
However, China's growing involvement has also raised questions about debt sustainability, economic dependence and the long-term benefits of foreign investment.
At the same time, African governments are increasingly engaging with multiple international partners, including the United States, European countries, China, Russia and other emerging economies.
This changing diplomatic landscape has created opportunities for African countries to diversify their economic partnerships and strengthen their bargaining positions.
Yet the continent's growing geopolitical importance does not automatically translate into better living standards for its people.
The central challenge remains ensuring that foreign investment and resource extraction contribute to sustainable economic development, job creation, and improved public services.
A legacy that continues in different forms
Africa's history of slavery and colonial exploitation may belong to the past, but its economic and political consequences continue to shape the continent.
The formal abolition of slavery did not eliminate the structural inequalities created by centuries of exploitation. Similarly, political independence did not immediately free many African economies from their dependence on foreign markets, external financing and commodity exports.
Today, the continent faces a complex combination of challenges, including poverty, political instability, inadequate infrastructure and unequal access to resources.
However, reducing Africa's economic difficulties to colonialism alone would overlook other important factors, including domestic governance, institutional capacity, economic policies, armed conflicts and environmental pressures.
The continent's development is also shaped by its considerable diversity. Countries such as Seychelles, Botswana and South Africa have followed economic paths that differ significantly from those of countries affected by prolonged conflict or severe institutional challenges.
Africa's poverty, therefore, cannot be explained by a single cause. It is the outcome of a complex interaction between historical exploitation, political decisions, economic structures and international relations.
The photograph of the starving Sudanese child and the vulture remains a powerful reminder of the human cost of extreme poverty. But Africa should not be defined solely by images of hunger, conflict and deprivation.
Beneath its soil lie vast mineral reserves. Its economies possess considerable potential, and its population represents an important source of human capital and innovation.
Ultimately, Africa's future will depend not only on the resources it possesses but also on its ability to translate that wealth into opportunities for its people.
The continent's greatest challenge is not simply to extract more resources, attract more investment, or secure new international partnerships. It is to ensure that the benefits of economic growth reach the people who have long remained on the margins of prosperity.
