United Nations: History, structure and efforts to reform global body
The United Nations officially came into existence on October 24, 1945, after the Charter was ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States, along with a majority of the other signatories
The United Nations was created in the aftermath of World War II with the goal of maintaining international peace and preventing future conflicts. Since its founding in 1945, its responsibilities have expanded to include human rights, international law, development and global challenges such as climate action.
But the organisation's structure and decision-making system have also faced calls for reform, particularly over the composition and veto powers of the Security Council.
How was the United Nations created?
Keep updated, follow The Business Standard's Google news channel
The predecessor to the United Nations was the League of Nations, which was established after World War I to prevent global conflict but ultimately failed to stop the outbreak of World War II.
From April 25 to June 26, 1945, representatives from 50 countries met in San Francisco, California, for the United Nations Conference on International Organization. They drafted and signed the UN Charter, establishing a new international organisation intended to maintain peace and prevent future world wars.
The United Nations officially came into existence on October 24, 1945, after the Charter was ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States, along with a majority of the other signatories.
The organisation was established to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, maintain international peace and security, protect human rights and uphold international law.
Its responsibilities have expanded over the decades to include modern global issues such as climate action and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
How is the United Nations structured?
The UN Charter established six principal organs that form the core structure of the UN system. Five are based at UN Headquarters in New York, while the International Court of Justice is based in The Hague, Netherlands.
The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative body. All 193 Member States are represented, with each state holding one vote.
The Security Council has primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. It has 15 members: five permanent members — China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States — and 10 non-permanent members elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. Each permanent member has veto power over substantive decisions.
The Economic and Social Council, known as ECOSOC, provides a forum for discussing economic, social and environmental challenges, coordinating policy recommendations and working with development agencies.
The Trusteeship Council was established to provide international supervision for 11 Trust Territories and ensure that adequate steps were taken towards self-government or independence.
The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the UN. It settles legal disputes submitted by states and provides advisory opinions on questions of international law.
The UN Secretariat carries out the organisation's day-to-day work. It is headed by the Secretary-General, who serves as the chief executive officer.
What powers does the Security Council have?
The Security Council is the only UN organ with the authority to issue legally binding decisions that all Member States must carry out under Article 25 of the Charter.
It can pursue peaceful means of resolving disputes under Article 41 and can authorise enforcement measures, including military action by land, air or sea forces, under Article 42 to maintain or restore international peace.
The veto held by each of the five permanent members is a central feature of the Council's decision-making system. A single permanent member can block a substantive decision.
What can the General Assembly do?
The General Assembly has a broad deliberative and policymaking role but does not generally issue legally binding obligations in the way the Security Council can.
It approves the UN budget, establishes financial assessments, elects non-permanent members of UN councils and appoints the Secretary-General following a recommendation from the Security Council.
On standard questions, decisions are made by a simple majority. Important issues, including peace and security recommendations, elections and budget matters, require a two-thirds majority.
The General Assembly also has a mechanism for responding when the Security Council is unable to act.
Under the 1950 "Uniting for Peace" resolution, if the Security Council fails to act because of a veto by a permanent member during a threat to peace or act of aggression, the General Assembly can consider the issue immediately and recommend collective measures.
Why has Security Council reform been proposed?
The Security Council was expanded in 1965, when the UN Charter was amended to increase its membership from 11 to 15 by adding four elected non-permanent seats.
Debate over further reform has continued as the UN's membership has grown from the original 50 countries to 193, following decolonization and the fall of the Soviet Union.
Critics argue that the Security Council does not adequately represent the contemporary world.
Proposals have included creating additional permanent seats for regions or major economies that are not currently represented permanently, including countries such as Germany or Brazil.
Other proposals have called for restrictions on, or the abolition of, the P5 veto. Some have proposed specialised bodies, including a Council on Weapons of Mass Destruction, to address treaty violations without the political deadlocks associated with the veto.
What reforms were launched under António Guterres?
In 2017, Secretary-General António Guterres launched a major structural reform programme that was endorsed by member states. It was organised around three main areas: development, peace and security, and management.
Development system reform
The reforms created a new generation of UN Country Teams and a strengthened, independent Resident Coordinator system. The Resident Coordinator system was separated from the UN Development Programme to streamline operations at the national level.
A "Funding Compact" was also established to improve resource predictability and align operations with the 2030 Agenda.
Peace and security reform
The UN reorganised its peace and security operations into two departments to improve conflict prevention and peacekeeping coherence.
The Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs manages political affairs, conflict prevention, electoral assistance and peacebuilding efforts.
The Department of Peace Operations serves as a central body for managing and directing peacekeeping operations and political missions in conflict zones.
Management reform
The organisation changed its planning and budget cycle from a biennial system to an annual budget.
It also created two operational support departments: the Department of Management, Strategy, Policy and Compliance and the Department of Operational Support. The changes were intended to eliminate functional overlap, increase transparency and decentralise decision-making.
How has the General Assembly been reformed?
Efforts to revitalise the General Assembly have focused on streamlining its agenda and improving committee working methods.
Other measures have included establishing codes of ethics for General Assembly presidents and making the selection process for the Secretary-General more transparent through open dialogues with candidates.
The reforms reflect continuing efforts to adapt the UN's structures and working methods to changes in the international system while maintaining its central responsibilities for international peace, security, development and international law.
With inputs taken from UN.org, Pennsylvania State University, and Europa.eu.
